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中国保护网络意识形态安全的努力

最后更新于: 12 九月 2024

习近平在2014年对中国网络机构进行了重大改革,开启了“后集中化”时代。从那时起,中共大幅扩展了其审查机制,以加强对国内互联网空间的控制。1这些控制手段包括对应用商店的审查和整顿活动,目的是强化内容监管。2下文中,我们将详细介绍通过实名制实施网络身份可识别性的相关意识形态和立法发展,并解释当局是如何战略性地制定这些政策来监控国内言论并排除外国用户的。

中国互联网的“三个地带”:围绕“红色”互联网的意识形态安全防火墙

中共最重要的战略目标是确保国内的稳定,即“维稳”,而实名注册系统是实现这一目标的重要工具 之一。3维稳是一项持续不断的运动,其目的在于压制内部的反对声音4和防止出现类似颜色革命或阿拉伯之春那样的内乱。5

2013年,习近平在全国宣传思想工作会议上讨论了全球互联网对中国政权稳定带来的挑战。6习近平 将国内的意识形态凝聚力和全球舆论划分为三个地带:红色地带、黑色地带和灰色地带。根据习的描 述,中国本身是最内层的“红色地带”,应由主流媒体和国家宣传机构加以控制。红色地带之外是充 满敌对叙述和颠覆性思想的“黑色地带”,如“普世价值”。位于内部(红色)和外部(黑色)地带 之间的是“灰色地带”这一“战场”。习近平指出,互联网是灰色地带中的“最大变量”,因为“敌 对势力”将不断利用它来塑造和操纵那些可能动摇中国的“心头之患”。7

对红色地带,要巩固和拓展,不断扩大其社会影响。对黑色地带,要勇于进入,钻进铁扇公主肚子里斗,逐步推动其改变颜色。对灰色地带,要大规模开展工作,加快使其转化为红色地带,防止其向黑色地带蜕变。这些工作,要抓紧做起来,坚持下去,必然会取得成效。

习近平,2013年8

年至今,中国已经建立了习近平所说的“三区”互联网框架。因此,中国的国内网络空间(即 内部红色地带)持续被转变为中共所称的“健康有序发展”或“风清气正的网络空间”。9实现这一 目标需要清除中国互联网上批评政权的声音,以及自由或进步的政治概念,如“新闻自由”“普世人 权”和“宪政民主”。10可能“破坏国家统一”“损害国家荣誉”或倡导“分裂思想”的内容也必须 被积极清除。因此,中国网络监管权力机构网信办的首要任务就是“控制网络信息空间,防止出现有 公共舆论属性和社会动员能力的有组织的反对”。11

随着中国国内控制和审查机构的加强,对监控和限制与全球其他网络世界的信息交流(即防止“信息 渗透风险”)的需求也日益增强。网络民族主义者和更广泛的宣传机构越来越频繁地对“灰色地带” 发出警告,他们警告称“西方故事”和“反华内容”12可能通过这一灰色地带渗透进中国,从而模糊 公共知识分子13和党员14乃至军事领导层的视线。15

在这场仍在进行的战斗中,私营科技行业是中国的第一道防线。这个行业的责任是“对网民认知事物 进行指导与导向”并确保“话语安全”。像社交媒体应用和互联网公司的运营者这些非传统意义上的 安全机构和个人,以“网络意识形态安全”为出发点保护灰色地带。16因此,党内知识分子常将这些 机构和个人称作“国家网络安全屏障”17或“意识形态安全防火墙”,用以阻止错误和有害内容在中 国内部传播。18

因此,监控和控制灰色地带以及防止任何可能毒化中国内部红色地带的政治话语的能力,无疑与谁能 访问中国的社交媒体并参与其中的问题密切相关。

立法背景:通过手机号注册实现中国互联网的全面可识别性

为了加强中国的意识形态安全防火墙,党国寻求用可靠且可持续的方式将线上行为与线下身份联系起来。因此,中国国内互联网公司必须将可识别性作为使用其服务的一项条件。实名制的合规要求通常包括提交用户手机号以及面部和身份证的扫描。2021年3月和2022年9月,当局先后发布了全面的规定,要求几乎所有与互联网接入相关的服务都必须收集身份信息(见附录2),包括DNS解析和信息服务。除了使用搜索引擎外,实名注册已经成为访问中国互联网的必要条件。19这是继2010年、2015年和2017年三个重要标准制定之后,十多年监管迭代的结果。

自2010年以来,实名注册已成为在中国办理手机号码的必要条件。根据全国人民代表大会的决定,中国的三大国有电信运营商在销售SIM卡时必须进行身份验证。20这一规定旨在将电话号码与身份证及实时地理位置数据关联起来。21然而,实际上,当这一决策刚刚出台时,知识分子和党员之间对实名注册制的做法还在讨论中,22最初的实施遭遇了阻碍。23从2010年至今,当局陆续推出了更多监管措施。24例如,自2019年起,用户在购买SIM卡时必须进行面部识别扫描。25更全面的立法概览请参见附录2

其次,网信办在2015年推出了一项新的网络账户管理原则,名为“后台实名、前台自愿”。依照这 一原则,所有互联网信息服务提供者必须对用户进行身份验证,但同时用户可以选择在网络平台上匿 名。26

最后,2017年6月出台的《网络安全法》在中国互联网的大部分领域实现了身份可识别性。《网络安 全法》第24条规定,所有网络运营者必须要求用户提供真实身份信息。27在2017年及2018年期间,党 国还进一步加大了对互联网公司执行实名注册政策和保护国家安全利益的压力(见附录2)。这些政 策明确要求确保政权稳定,加强自我审查,并践行意识形态防火墙。28

要求用户提交手机号码是互联网信息服务提供者遵 守“后台实名”要求的一种办法,因为党国可以通 过访问三大电信运营者的数据来完成身份验证。因 此,2016年,工业和信息化部发言人表示,中国 92%的SIM卡已成功与身份信息关联。67这种高比例 的手机号码身份识别率使互联网服务提供者能够使 用手机号码完成身份验证要求,而无需处理大量用 户私人信息。29在中国以移动设备为主运行的互联 网经济中,手机号码(+86)依然是用于账户注册的 普遍且低技术含量的准身份标识符(见图2)。

图2

图2: 手机端实名制注册规定
在大多数中国应用上,创建账户 都必须绑定手机号码。
来源:2024年2月在微信上进行的“应用程序漫游”

然而,由于中国的实名注册系统依赖于服务提供者和电信运营者之间复杂的数据交接,网信办于2024年开启了一项国家认证服务,目的是简化并统一中国的身份识别系统。30通过这项服务,网信办向用户颁发国家互联网ID,并要求互联网服务提供者在认证用户身份时接受这些ID。31这项国家服务的核心是一个“可信身份”的集中数据库,公安部首次在2014年尝试使用这一数据库,以支持公私部门间与实名注册相关的技术通信(详见下方图3)。

图3

图3: 集中数据库实现跨所有服务的身份识别
可信身份认证平台概念金字塔 (互联网+可信身份认证平台)

网络信任身份(CTID)平台允许中国应用程序和互联网服务提供者根据已注册的身份证件验证电话号码。截至2020年,这个三级平台每天进行大约1500万次认证。它包含一个中心数据库,该数据库包括各行政机构的身份证件和由国家电信运营者验证的电话号码(第一级)。这使得第三方认证服务提供者(第二级)能够在商业在线服务上验证用户,例如微信和支付宝32(第三级)。

CTID运营者称,该平台的客户从2020年 的26个机构客户增长到2022年的50个行 业和350个机构,33期间收集了的身份信 息达到惊人的50亿份,包括身份证、护 照以及来自香港、澳门和台湾居民的数 据。34CTID还被开发用于支持生物识别 技术,包括面部、指纹、声音和步态识 别,其目标是最终替代传统的身份证和 护照。35

第3级:业务凭证级
第2级:第三方作证级
第1级:法定信任基础级

来源:OIDAA, CTID平台:中国特色网络可信身份战略实践, 2020年6月19日, https://archive.is/4qrqb.

背景: 国家“网络信任体系”的概念最初由人力资源和社会保障部在2008年8月提出。当时该部门还建议,用户必须先验证身份才能获准访问互联网。

2014年,中国公安部被授权建立一个“中国 特色的网络可信体系”,以数字化方式统一 中国国内互联网上的所有身份认证过程。

以人社部的工作为基础,公安部在 2017年正式开始开发CTID,此前该 项目被称为“互联网+可信身份认证 平台”或“国家网络身份认证公共服 务平台”。36


  1. The “post-centralization” period in Chinese cybersecurity governance refers to the phase following the establishment of centralized control by the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission, marked by a strategic emphasis on integrating Internet governance with national security and development policies, leading to a more top-down, government-led approach. See Jinhe Liu, “Rethinking Chinese multistakeholder governance of cybersecurity,” in Ian Johnston, et al. (Ed.), “Building an International Cybersecurity Regime,” Elgar Online, 2023. ↩︎

  2. Rongbin Han, “Contesting Cyberspace in China - Online Expression and Authoritarian Resilience,” Columbia University Press, 2018, Chapter 2: Harmonizing the internet. ↩︎

  3. Deng Kai, David Demes, and Chih-Jou Jay Chen, “Xi Jinping’s Surveillance State-Merging Digital Technology and Grassroots Organizations,” in Ashley Esarey and Rongbin Han (Eds.), “The Xi Jinping Effect,” University of Washington Press, 2024, pages 153-180. ↩︎

  4. Kai Yang, “Demobilizing Veterans: Campaign-Style Stability Maintenance in China,” Modern China, 50 (4), 2023; Katja Drinhausen and Helena Legarda, “Confident Paranoia,” MERICS, September 2022↩︎

  5. These political movements resulted in regime changes in various post-Soviet states during the Color Revolutions and in the Middle East and North Africa during the Arab Spring. They also inspired regime critics in China to call for their own Jasmine Revolution, which, as CCP outlets and political scientists in the West have pointed out, caused China’s party-state to double down on internet controls. See Kan Daoyuan [阚道远], “Improving Political Discrimination Ability in the Internet Age” [提高网络时代的政治鉴别力], Red FlagManuscript [红旗文稿], January 16, 2016; Rongbin Han, “Contesting Cyberspace in China - Online Expression and Authoritarian Resilience,” Columbia University Press, 2018, Chapter 1: Introduction; Elizabeth Economy, “The Third Revolution,” Oxford University Press, 2018, Chapter 3: Chinanet. ↩︎

  6. This quote comes from the 2013 speech titled “The Internet has become the main battlefield in the struggle for public opinion” [互联网已经成为舆论斗争的主战场]. See China Digital Times, “Full Text of Xi Jinping’s August 19 Speech: Be Boldin Grasping, Managing, and Wielding the Swordin Speech” 网传习近平8•19讲话全文:言论方面要敢抓敢管敢于亮剑,” China Digital Times [中国数字时代], April 11, 2013. Note that the speech has been frequently cited or referred to in Chinese state media. See Lin Hui [林晖] et al., “Building aStrong Cyber Nation to Aid National Rejuvenation” [建设网络强国 助力民族复兴], People’s Daily [人民日报], July 14, 2023↩︎

  7. Ibid. ↩︎

  8. ChinaCopyrightMedia, “Xi Jinping’s 19 August speech revealed? (Translation),” November 12, 2013↩︎

  9. General Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and General Office of the State Council [中共中央办公厅 国务院办公厅], “Opinions on Promoting the Healthy and Orderly Development of the Mobile Internet” [《关于促进 移动互联网健康有序发展的意见》], Xinhua News Agency [新华社], January 15, 2017; Li Zhiqiang [李志强], “Creating a Clean and Healthy Cyberspace” [南方时论:营造一个风 清气正的网络空间], Southcn.com, April 21, 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/ ↩︎

  10. Sang Linfeng [桑林峰], “Military Report: Hostile Forces’ Network Strategic Offensive, Lack of Responsibility Among a Few Military Leaders” [敌对势力网络战略进攻 军队少数领导缺担当], PLA News, May 20, 2015↩︎

  11. Rogier Creemers, “Cybersecurity Law and Regulation in China: Securing the Smart State,” China Law and Society Review, 6 (2), 2023↩︎

  12. Stella Chen, “‘Hostile Forces’ in the Digital Age,” China Media Project, November 11, 2021↩︎

  13. San Yi Shenghuo [三易生活], “Public Intellectuals Sing a Different Tune Again, But Real-Name Registration for Mobile Phones is Not a Disaster” [公知又唱反调 但手机实名制并不是洪水 猛兽], Sohu, October 11, 2016↩︎

  14. As mentioned in the lead article in of a PLA newspaper. See Jie Yiping [解一平], “Front Page of Military Newspaper: The Internet May Become a ‘Heart Disease’ for Contemporary China” [军 报头版:互联网或成当代中国”心头之患”], China National Defense News [中国国防], January 15, 2016↩︎

  15. Sang Linfeng [桑林峰], “Military Report: Hostile Forces’ Network Strategic Offensive, Lack of Responsibility Among a Few Military Leaders” [敌对势力网络战略进攻 军队少数领导缺担当], PLA News, May 20, 2015↩︎

  16. Cheng Guilong and Xie Jun [程桂龙 谢俊], “Cyber Ideological Security Governance from the Perspective of Non-Traditional Security” [非 传统安全视阈下网络意识形态安全治理], Network Ideological and Political Education Research [网络思政研究], March 10, 2023↩︎

  17. Zhang Li [张立], “Strengthening the National Cybersecurity Barrier” [筑牢国家网络安全屏障], Red Flag Manuscript [红旗文稿], January 29, 2024↩︎

  18. Daniel Crain, “America’s Cognitive Warfare Against China,” Sinification, January 25, 2024↩︎

  19. BBC, “Is There Privacy After Comprehensive Real-Name Registration? — Chinese Netizens View on ‘Internet Real-Name System’” [全面实名后还有 隐私吗——中国网民看“网络实名制”], June 1, 2017↩︎

  20. Xue Song [薛松], “Buying a Mobile SIM Card at a Business Hall Requires an ID Card Starting Today” [营业厅买手机卡今起须持身份证], Guangzhou Daily [广州日报], September 1, 2010↩︎

  21. “Unfettered access to SIM card location data through state-run carriers und rules requiring every SIM card location to be linked to the user’s government ID meant the government could uncover the location of any mobile user in the country at any time.” See Josh Chin and Liza Lin, “Surveillance State: Inside China’s Quest to Launch a New Era of Social Control,” St. Martin’s Press, 2022, page 235. ↩︎

  22. Liu Gang [刘刚], “The Origin, Debate, and Possible Solutions of China’s Real-Name Registration System” [我国网络实名制的缘起、争论及可能出路], Journal of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (Social Sciences Edition) [电子科技大学学报社科版], 17(4), 2015, pages 55-59; LiXiguang [李希光], “Talking About News Reform: Should the People’s Congress Legislate to Prohibit Anyone from Posting Anonymously Online?” [谈新闻改革:人大应该立法禁止任何人匿名在网上发表东西?], Blogchina.com [博客中国], May 26, 2003↩︎

  23. Sophie Wu, “Real-name registration required for China mobile users,” Internet Governance Project, September 7, 2010↩︎

  24. Ye Pan [叶攀], “Black Market Mobile SIM Cards Still Openly Sold Online: These Details Must Be Guarded Against” [手机“黑卡”仍在网 上公开兜售 这些细节不得不防], CCTV News [央 视新闻客户端], February 16, 2019 http://www.chinanews.com/cj/2019/02-16/8756076.shtml; Cao Yin, “IM Rules Are Tightened to Stem Rumors, Pornography,” China Daily USA, August 8, 2014↩︎

  25. Lily Kuo, “China Brings in Mandatory Facial Recognition for Mobile Phone Users,” The Guardian, December 2, 2019↩︎

  26. The principle was adopted by China’s seminal Cybersecurity Law, which was followed by a host of regulations in 2016 and 2017, clarifying specific requirements for various internet sectors, such as app wallets, mobile apps, online news providers, comment functions, and online forums. See also CAC, “Internet User Account Name Management Regulations” [互联网用户账号名称管理规定], February 4, 2015; Charles Custer, “China’s Wallet Apps Require Real-Name Registration by July 1 – Or Else,” Tech in Asia, May 30, 2016↩︎

  27. The CSL put into law what the National People’s Congress had already introduced in 2012. To bolster “network information security” (网络信息保护), a decision mandated that “network service providers” (网络服务提供者) must verify users’ identities using IDs or other legal documents before granting access to internet services and social media platforms. While the obligation for real-name registration (RNR) for internet access therefore predates Xi Jinping’s concept of the tri-zone internet, the legislative justification for it has gradually shifted. According to the original 2012 decision, RNR was intended to prevent the spread of pornographic content, combat fraud, and protect minors. ↩︎

  28. A legal expert at the Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications explains that RNR, as defined in Article 24 of the Cybersecurity Law, serves one main purpose: to support the establishment of a purified internet environment(净化网络环境) and to psychologically deter netizens who attempt to commit crimes, such as anonymously spreading rumors. See Xie Yongjiang[谢永江], “Backend Real-Name System Has Become a Global Reality, Strengthening Personal Information Protection is Key” [【专家谈】后台实名制已成全球性现实 强化个人信息保护成为关键], People’s Daily [人民日报], September 11, 2017 http://opinion.people.com.cn/n1/2017/0911/c1003-29527979.html. Similarly, according to Tian Li, Associate Professor at Peking University’s New Media Research Institute, RNR turns the internal moral constraints of netizens into external legal constraints, for which the “SevenBase Lines” should provide guiding principles, as defined by Lu Wei, formerly head of the CAC and deputy head of the Propaganda Department. See Dong Siyu [董丝雨] and Jiang Qiguang [蒋齐光], “Three Questions on Internet Real-Name System: Information Protection, Technological Supervision, and Freedom of Speech” [三问网络实名制:信息保护、技术监管、言论自由], People’s Daily [人民日报],June 1, 2017↩︎

  29. Gao Yaping Team [高亚平团队], “How App ‘Real-Name Authentication’ Follows the ‘Minimum Necessary Principle’” [新经济与法|App“实名认 证”如何遵循“最小必要原则”], The Paper [澎 湃], January 6, 2022 https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_16165104↩︎

  30. Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission [ 中央网络安全和信息化委员会], “Ministry of Public Security and the Cyberspace Administration of China on the ‘National Network Identity Authentication Public Service Management Measures (Draft for Comments)’ Public Solicitation of Comments” [公安部 国家互联网信息办公室关于 《国家网络身份认证公共服务管理办法(征求意见 稿)》公开征求意见的公告], July 26, 2024↩︎

  31. Meaghan Tobin and John Liu, “China Wants to Start a National Internet ID System,” New York Times, July 31, 2024↩︎

  32. WeChat, developed by Tencent, is a multifunctional social media app that integrates messaging, social networking, and payment functionalities, widely adopted across China. It is integral to daily digital interaction and commerce in the country. Alipay, created by Alibaba’s affiliate Ant Group, functions primarily as a digital wallet and payment platform, playing a pivotal role in facilitating online and mobile transactions in China. ↩︎

  33. Available for download in iOS: https://archive.is/t33of↩︎

  34. OIDAA, “CTID Platform: Strategic Practice of China’s Network Trusted Identity with Chinese Characteristics” [CTID平台:中国特色网络可信身份 战略实践], June 19, 2020 https://www.oidaa.org.cn/news/newsinfo/68.html↩︎

  35. Information Security Research [信息安全研究], “Exploration and Prospects of the Development Path of China’s Network Trusted Identity” [我国网络可信身份发展路径探索与展望],December 20, 2022 https://www.secrss.com/articles/50211; ANICERT [中盾安信], “Managing Trusted Identity Based on Legal Documents to Create a Clear and Bright Cyberspace Environment” [基于法律证件开展可信身份管理 共同营造风朗气清的网络空间环境], Police TechnologySpecial Issue [警察技术专刊], June 4, 2020 https://www.anicert.cn/industry/industryinfo/87.html↩︎

  36. OIDAA, “Technical Architecture and Standards of the ‘Internet + Trusted Identity Authentication Platform’” [“互联网 +可信身份认证平台”技术架构与标准], May 29, 2020 https://www.oidaa.org.cn/news/newsinfo/65.html↩︎